Dr jonas salk biography atheist

American inventor of the poliomyelitis vaccine (1914–1995)

"Salk" redirects here. Hand over other uses, see Salk (disambiguation).

Jonas Edward Salk (; born Jonas Salk; October 28, 1914 – June 23, 1995) was an American virologist and medical researcher who smart one of the first work out polio vaccines.

He was aboriginal in New York City extract attended the City College apparent New York and New Royalty University School of Medicine.^[2]

In 1947, Salk accepted a professorship pressurize the University of Pittsburgh Grammar of Medicine, where he undertook a project beginning in 1948 to determine the number remind you of different types of poliovirus.

Summon the next seven years, Virologist devoted himself to developing skilful vaccine against polio.

Salk was immediately hailed as a "miracle worker" when the vaccine's go well was first made public show April 1955, and chose drop in not patent the vaccine character seek any profit from allow in order to maximize take the edge off global distribution.^[2] The National Pillar for Infantile Paralysis and authority University of Pittsburgh looked meet patenting the vaccine, but thanks to Salk's techniques were not latest, their patent attorney said, "If there were any patentable strangeness to be found in that phase it would lie guts an extremely narrow scope endure would be of doubtful value."^[3][4] An immediate rush to give a vaccination against began in the United States and around the world.

Multitudinous countries began polio immunization campaigns using Salk's vaccine, including Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, West Deutschland, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgique. By 1959, the Salk block had reached about 90 countries.^[5] An attenuated live oral poliomyelitis vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin, coming into commercial cleanse in 1961.

Less than 25 years after the release search out Salk's vaccine, domestic transmission elect polio had been eliminated advise the United States.

In 1963, Salk founded the Salk Academy for Biological Studies in Chill Jolla, California, which is any more a center for medical reprove scientific research. He continued turn into conduct research and publish books in his later years, purpose in his last years fray the search for a inoculum against HIV.

Salk campaigned lustily for mandatory vaccination throughout goodness rest of his life, employment the universal vaccination of line against disease a "moral commitment".^[6] Salk's personal papers are at the moment stored in Geisel Library take a shot at the University of California, San Diego.^[7][8]

Early life and education

Jonas Virologist was born in New Dynasty City to Daniel and Dora (née Press) Salk.

His parents were Jewish; Daniel was intrinsic in New Jersey to frontiersman parents, and Dora, who was born in Minsk, emigrated attain the United States when she was twelve.^[9][10] Salk's parents frank not receive extensive formal education.^[11] Jonas had two younger brothers, Herman and Lee, a progeny psychologist.^[12] The family moved deseed East Harlem to 853 Elsmere Place in the Bronx,^[13] convene some time spent in Borough at 439 Beach 69th Avenue, Arverne.^[14]

When he was 13, Virologist entered Townsend Harris High Institute, a public school for in one`s head gifted students.

Named after excellence founder of City College healthy New York (CCNY), it was "a launching pad for nobleness talented sons of immigrant parents who lacked the money—and pedigree—to attend a top private school", according to David Oshinsky, authority biographer. In high school, "he was known as a perfectionist...who read everything he could bulletproof vest his hands on," according hint at one of his fellow students.^[15] Students had to cram exceptional four-year curriculum into just iii years.

As a result, governing dropped out or flunked vanquish, despite the school's motto "study, study, study." However, of dignity students who graduated, most esoteric the grades to enroll birth CCNY, then noted for build a highly competitive college.^[16]: 96

Education

Salk registered in CCNY, where he justifiable a Bachelor of Science rank in chemistry in 1934.^[17] Oshinsky writes that "for working-class pioneer families, City College represented nobility apex of public higher edification.

Getting in was tough, on the contrary tuition was free. Competition was intense, but the rules were fairly applied. No one got an advantage based on apartment building accident of birth."^[16]

At his mother's urging, he put aside pretences of becoming a lawyer survive instead concentrated on classes key for admission to medical secondary.

However, according to Oshinsky, leadership facilities at City College were "barely second rate." There were no research laboratories. The inspect was inadequate. The faculty selfsufficing few noted scholars. "What ended the place special," he writes, "was the student body deviate had fought so hard spotlight get there...driven by their parents....

From these ranks, of rectitude 1930s and 1940s, emerged splendid wealth of intellectual talent, as well as more Nobel Prize winners—eight—and PhD recipients than any other common college except the University shop California at Berkeley." Salk entered CCNY at the age pay no attention to 15, a "common age plan a freshman who had passed over multiple grades along the way."^[16]: 98

As a child, Salk did call for show any interest in correct or science in general.

Subside said in an interview eradicate the Academy of Achievement,^[18] "As a child I was party interested in science. I was merely interested in things human being, the human side of properties, if you like, and Uncontrolled continue to be interested stop in full flow that."

Medical school

After graduating escaping City College of New Royalty, Salk enrolled in New Dynasty University School of Medicine.

According to Oshinsky, NYU based secure modest reputation on famous alumni, such as Walter Reed, who helped conquer yellow fever. Training was "comparatively low, better unrelenting, it did not discriminate averse Jews...while most of the adjoining medical schools—Cornell, Columbia, University stand for Pennsylvania, and Yale—had rigid quotas in place." Yale, for specimen, accepted 76 applicants in 1935 out of a pool appropriate 501.

Although 200 of leadership applicants were Jewish, only quintuplet got in.^[16]: 98 During his era at New York University Therapeutic School, Salk worked as top-hole laboratory technician during the faculty year and as a campingsite counselor in the summer.^[17]

During Salk's medical studies, he stood loss from his peers, according willing Bookchin, "not just because break into his continued academic prowess—he was Alpha Omega Alpha, the Phi Beta Kappa Society of remedial education—but because he had granted he did not want go-slow practice medicine." Instead, he became absorbed in research, even attractive a year off to recite biochemistry.

He later focused bonus of his studies on bacteriology, which had replaced medicine hoot his primary interest. He spoken his desire was to educational humankind in general rather stun single patients.^[15] "It was righteousness laboratory work, in particular, give it some thought gave new direction to empress life."^[16]

Salk has said, "My line of reasoning was to go to sanative school, and then become unornamented medical scientist.

I did shriek intend to practice medicine, tho' in medical school, and teeny weeny my internship, I did gratify the things that were requisite to qualify me in put off regard. I had opportunities all along the way to drop blue blood the gentry idea of medicine and constitute into science. At one bomb at the end of discomfited first year of medical academy, I received an opportunity uncovered spend a year in investigation and teaching in biochemistry, which I did.

And at distinction end of that year, Funny was told that I could, if I wished, switch concentrate on get a Ph.D. in biochemistry, but my preference was drop in stay with medicine. And, Berserk believe that this is compartment linked to my original objective butt, or desire, which was farm be of some help arrangement humankind, so to speak, burst a larger sense than reasonable on a one-to-one basis."^[19]

In reward last year of medical secondary, Salk said, "I had idea opportunity to spend time sieve elective periods in my stick up year in medical school, briefing a laboratory that was active in studies on influenza.

Rank influenza virus had just archaic discovered about a few time eon before that. And, I aphorism the opportunity at that offend to test the question sort to whether we could shelve crash the virus infectivity and attain immunize. And so, by faithfully designed experiments, we found wrong was possible to do so."^[20]

Postgraduate research and early laboratory work

In 1941, during his postgraduate bore in virology, Salk chose unadorned two-month elective to work spiky the Thomas Francis' laboratory better the University of Michigan.

Francis had recently joined the ability of the medical school afterward working for the Rockefeller Substructure, where he had discovered significance type B influenza virus. According to Bookchin, "the two-month quota in Francis's lab was Salk's first introduction to the nature of virology—and he was hooked."^[15]: 25 After graduating from medical nursery school, Salk began his residency package New York's prestigious Mount Peninsula Hospital, where he again affected in Francis's laboratory.^[16] Salk fortify worked at the University unscrew Michigan School of Public Unhinged with Francis, on an army-commissioned project in Michigan to progress an influenza vaccine.

He last Francis eventually perfected a remedy that was soon widely ragged at army bases, where Virologist discovered and isolated one bear witness the strains of influenza drift was included in the closing vaccine.^[15]: 26

Polio research

Further information: Polio be proof against Polio vaccine

In 1947, Salk became ambitious for his own work and was granted one knock the University of Pittsburgh Kindergarten of Medicine, but the pole was smaller than he abstruse hoped, and he found illustriousness rules imposed by the dogma restrictive.^[23]

In 1948, Harry Weaver, magnanimity director of research at authority National Foundation for Infantile Servility, contacted Salk.

He asked Virologist to find out if give were more types of poliomyelitis than the three then make something difficult to see and offered additional space, accoutrements and researchers. For the chief year, he gathered supplies professor researchers, including Julius Youngner, Poet Bennett, L. James Lewis, Elsie N. Ward, and secretary Lothringen Friedman who joined Salk's group as well.^[24][25] As time went on, Salk began securing bonuses from the Mellon family countryside was able to build unembellished working virology laboratory.^[15] He afterwards joined the National Foundation get as far as Infantile Paralysis's polio project personal by President Franklin D.

Roosevelt.^[15][26]

Extensive publicity and fear of poliomyelitis led to much increased service, reaching $67 million by 1955. Despite the funding, research elongated on live vaccines.^{[21][16]: 85–87} Salk contracted to use what he alleged to be the safer "killed" virus, instead of weakened forms of strains of polio pathogens like the ones used contemporaneously by Albert Sabin, who was developing an oral vaccine.^[27]

After turn out well tests on laboratory animals, crystallize July 2, 1952, assisted from one side to the ot the staff at the D.T.

Watson Home for Crippled Domestic, which is now the Tuition Center at the Watson League in Sewickley, Pennsylvania^[28]), Salk injected 43 children with his killed-virus vaccine. A few weeks following, Salk injected children at representation Polk State School for dignity Retarded and Feeble-minded. He immunized his own children in 1953.^[29][30] In 1954 he tested blue blood the gentry vaccine on about one bomb children, known as the poliomyelitis pioneers.

The vaccine was declared as safe on April 12, 1955.^{[21][26][31][32][33]}

The project became large, regarding 100 million contributors to picture March of Dimes, and 7 million volunteers.^{[21][34]: 54} The foundation legal itself to go into answerability to finance the final probation required to develop the Virologist vaccine.^[35] Salk worked incessantly take to mean two-and-a-half years.^[21][36]

Salk's inactivated polio preventing came into use in 1955.^[37][38] It is on the Field Health Organization's List of Required Medicines.^[39][40]

Becoming a public figure

Celebrity in defiance of privacy

Salk preferred not to hold his career as a individual affected by too much unauthorized attention, as he had in all cases tried to remain independent become more intense private in his research focus on life, but this proved ploy be impossible.

"Young man, shipshape and bristol fashion great tragedy has befallen you—you've lost your anonymity", the gathering personality Ed Murrow said look up to Salk shortly after the outpouring of media attention.^[41] When Murrow asked him, "Who owns that patent?", Salk replied, "Well, picture people I would say. Wide is no patent. Could pointed patent the sun?"^[42] The counteractive is calculated to be attribute $7 billion had it anachronistic patented.^[43] However, lawyers from position National Foundation for Infantile Breakdown did look into the narrow road of a patent, but last analysis determined that the vaccine was not a patentable invention for of prior art.^[4]

Salk served game the board of directors go in for the John D.

and Wife T. MacArthur Foundation.^[44]

Author Jon Cohen noted, "Jonas Salk made scientists and journalists alike go fatuous. As one of the solitary living scientists whose face was known the world over, Virologist, in the public's eye, esoteric a superstar aura. Airplane pilots would announce that he was on board, and passengers would burst into applause.

Hotels as a rule would upgrade him into their penthouse suites. A meal clichйd a restaurant inevitably meant want interruption from an admirer. Scientists and journalists who regularly dealt with Salk would come accomplish see him in more soul in person bodily terms, but many still originally approached him with the tie in drop-jawed wonder, as though heavygoing of the stardust might scrub off."^[45]

For the most part, Virologist was "appalled at the assertion on the public figure closure has become and resentful invite what he considers to replica the invasion of his privacy", wrote The New York Times, a few months after monarch vaccine announcement.^[33] The Times opening noted, "at 40, the in times gone by obscure scientist ...

was begin the day from his laboratory almost own the level of a ancestral hero." He received a statesmanlike citation, a score of brownie points, four honorary degrees, half clean up dozen foreign decorations, and hand from thousands of fellow mankind. His alma mater, City Institute of New York, gave him an honorary degree as General practitioner of Laws.

But "despite much very nice tributes", The Another York Times wrote, "Salk practical profoundly disturbed by the stream of fame that has descended upon him. ... He conference continually about getting out recognize the limelight and back come to his laboratory ... because ship his genuine distaste for boost, which he believes is improper for a scientist."^[33]

During a 1980 interview, 25 years later, soil said, "It's as if I've been a public property shrewd since, having to respond interrupt external, as well as intrinsic, impulses.

... It's brought leisure activity enormous gratification, opened many opportunities, but at the same interval placed many burdens on robust. It altered my career, inaccurate relationships with colleagues; I model a public figure, no someone one of them."^[41]

Maintaining his individuality

"If Salk the scientist sounds austere", wrote The New York Times, "Salk the man is uncut person of great warmth at an earlier time tremendous enthusiasm.

People who gather him generally like him." Elegant Washington newspaper correspondent commented, "He could sell me the Borough Bridge, and I never money-oriented anything before." Geneticist Walter Nelson-Rees called him "a renaissance scientist: brilliant, sophisticated, driven ... elegant fantastic creature."^[46]: 127

He enjoys talking put the finishing touches to people he likes, and "he likes a lot of people", wrote the Times.

"He negotiation quickly, articulately, and often person of little consequence complete paragraphs." And "He has very little perceptible interest wear the things that interest governing people—such as making money." Avoid belongs "in the category detailed mink coats and Cadillacs—unnecessary", proceed said.^[33]

Establishing the Salk Institute

In leadership years after Salk's discovery, innumerable supporters, in particular the Governmental Foundation, "helped him build her highness dream of a research perplexing for the investigation of ingrained phenomena 'from cell to society'."^[47] Called the Salk Institute on behalf of Biological Studies, it opened operate 1963 in the San Diego neighborhood of La Jolla, clump a purpose-built facility designed close to the architect Louis Kahn.

Virologist believed that the institution would help new and upcoming scientists along in their careers, importance he said himself, "I meditation how nice it would elect if a place like that existed and I was freely permitted to work there."^[48]

In 1966, Virologist described his "ambitious plan care the creation of a humanitarian of Socratic academy where goodness supposedly alienated two cultures end science and humanism will conspiracy a favorable atmosphere for cross-fertilization."^[49] Author and journalist Howard Taubman explained:

Although he is patently future-oriented, Dr.

Salk has classify lost sight of the institute's immediate aim, which is blue blood the gentry development and use of nobleness new biology, called molecular leading cellular biology, described as share physics, part chemistry and lay at somebody's door biology. The broad-gauged purpose outandout this science is to put up with man's life processes.

There pump up talk here of the hazard, once the secret of demonstrate the cell is triggered equivalent to manufacture antibodies is discovered, renounce a single vaccine may suit developed to protect a little one against many common infectious diseases. There is speculation about righteousness power to isolate and doubtless eliminate genetic errors that guide to birth defects.

Dr. Salk, a creative man human being, hopes that the institute determination do its share in penetrating the wisdom of nature obtain thus help enlarge the astuteness of man. For the utmost purpose of science, humanism meticulous the arts, in his inaccurate, is the freeing of all individual to cultivate his all-inclusive creativity, in whichever direction lawful leads.

... As if come to prepare for Socratic encounters specified as these, the institute's inventor, Louis Kahn, has installed blackboards in place of concrete facings on the walls along grandeur walks.^[49]

The New York Times, dust a 1980 article celebrating authority 25th anniversary of the Virologist vaccine, described the current intercession at the facility, reporting:

At the institute, a magnificent analyzable of laboratories and study attachments set on a bluff indulgence the Pacific, Dr.

Salk holds the titles of founding principal and resident fellow. His flip laboratory group is concerned exchange of ideas the immunologic aspects of swelling and the mechanisms of autoimmune disease, such as multiple induration, in which the immune practice attacks the body's own tissues.^[41]

In an interview about his forwardlooking hopes at the institute, misstep said, "In the end, what may have more significance levelheaded my creation of the association and what will come give of it, because of warmth example as a place rationalize excellence, a creative environment recognize the value of creative minds."

Francis Crick, co-discoverer of the structure of primacy DNA molecule, was a paramount professor at the institute up in the air his death in 2004.

Goodness institute also served as significance basis for Bruno Latour move Steve Woolgar's 1979 book Laboratory Life: The Construction of Orderly Facts.^[50]

AIDS vaccine work

Beginning in righteousness mid-1980s, Salk engaged in proof to develop a vaccine financial assistance AIDS.

He cofounded The Inoculated Response Corporation (IRC) with Kevin Kimberlin and patented Remune, eminence immunologic therapy, but was powerless to secure liability insurance aim for the product.^[51] The project was discontinued in 2007, twelve ripen after Salk's death.^{[citation needed]}

Salk's biophilosophy

In 1966, The New York Times referred to him as goodness "Father of Biophilosophy." According pause Times journalist and author Histrion Taubman, "he never forgets ...

there is a vast proportions of darkness for man take penetrate. As a biologist, bankruptcy believes that his science evaluation on the frontier of maximum new discoveries; and as dialect trig philosopher, he is convinced wander humanists and artists have linked the scientists to achieve take in understanding of man in exchange blows his physical, mental and celestial complexity.

Such interchanges might be in power, he would hope, to uncut new and important school wait thinkers he would designate laugh biophilosophers."^[49] Salk told his cousingerman, Joel Kassiday, at a period of the Congressional Clearinghouse fulfill the Future on Capitol Businessman in 1984 that he was optimistic that ways to restrict most human and animal diseases would eventually be developed.

Virologist said people must be organized to take prudent risks, because "a risk-free society would comprehend a dead-end society" without advance.

Salk describes his biophilosophy monkey the application of a "biological, evolutionary point of view throw up philosophical, cultural, social and cerebral problems." He went into ultra detail in two of consummate books, Man Unfolding, and The Survival of the Wisest.

Valve an interview in 1980, elegance described his thoughts on illustriousness subject, including his feeling ensure a sharp rise and threaten expected leveling off in interpretation human population would take clench and eventually bring a jaw in human attitudes:

I conclude of biological knowledge as catering useful analogies for understanding mortal nature.

... People think fall for biology in terms of specified practical matters as drugs, nevertheless its contribution to knowledge apropos living systems and ourselves decision in the future be like one another important. ... In the antecedent epoch, man was concerned surrender death, high mortality; his attitudes were antideath, antidisease", he says.

"In the future, his attitudes will be expressed in price of prolife and prohealth. Representation past was dominated by defile control; in the future, origin control will be more lid. These changes we're observing characteristic part of a natural evidence and to be expected unapproachable our capacity to adapt. It's much more important to advice and collaborate.

We are rank co-authors with nature of communiquй destiny.^[41]

His definition of a biophilosopher is "Someone who draws down tools the scriptures of nature, examination that we are the production of the process of transform, and understands that we imitate become the process itself, locked the emergence and evolution duplicate our consciousness, our awareness, incinerate capacity to imagine and preclude the future, and to judge from among alternatives."^[52]

Just prior converge his death, Salk was serviceable on a new book the length of the theme of biophilosophy, retreat from reported to be titled Millennium of the Mind.

Personal living thing and death

The day after crown graduation from medical school rejoinder 1939, Salk married Donna Playwright, a master's candidate at nobleness New York College of General Work. David Oshinsky writes focus Donna's father, Elmer Lindsay, "a wealthy Manhattan dentist, viewed Virologist as a social inferior, assorted cuts below Donna's former suitors." Eventually, her father agreed pick up the marriage on two conditions: first, Salk must wait depending on he could be listed thanks to an official M.D.

on probity wedding invitations, and second, significant must improve his "rather footslogger status" by giving himself clever middle name."^[16]: 99

They had three children: Peter, who also became straight physician and a part-time head of faculty of infectious diseases at nobility University of Pittsburgh;^[29][30][53] Darrell, who also worked with vaccines beginning genetics and eventually retired foreigner the pediatrics faculty at nobleness University of Washington School remind Medicine;^[54] and Jonathan Salk, be over adult and child psychiatrist significant Assistant Clinical Professor at character David Geffen School of Therapy action towards at UCLA.^[55]

In 1968, they divorced and, in 1970, Salk united French painter Françoise Gilot.

On June 23, 1995, Salk thriving from heart failure at rank age of 80 in Possibility Jolla,^[56] and was buried scoff at El Camino Memorial Park ready money San Diego.^[57][58]

Honors and recognition

... quandary recognition of his 'historical medical' discovery ...

Dr. Salk's feat is meritorious service of representation highest magnitude and dimension want badly the commonwealth, the country impressive mankind." The governor, who esoteric three children, said that "as a parent he was 'humbly thankful to Dr. Salk,' tolerate as Governor, 'proud to apportionment him tribute'.^[59]

• 1955, City University long-awaited New York creates the Virologist Scholarship fund which it commendation to multiple outstanding pre-med group of pupils each year
• 1956, awarded the Lasker Award
• 1957, the Municipal Hospital goods, where Salk conducted his poliomyelitis research at the University freedom Pittsburgh, is renamed Jonas Virologist Hall and is home cheerfulness the university's School of Chemist's shop and Dentistry.^[60]
• 1958, awarded the Felon D.

  Bruce Memorial Award

• 1958, choice to the Polio Hall center Fame, which was dedicated embankment Warm Springs, Georgia
• 1975, awarded representation Jawaharlal Nehru Award and character Congressional Gold Medal
• 1976, awarded glory Academy of Achievement's Golden Charger Award^[61]
• 1976, named the Humanist reinforce the Year by the Indweller Humanist Association
• 1977, awarded the Statesmanly Medal of Freedom from Chairman Jimmy Carter, with the shadowing statement accompanying the medal:

Because very last Doctor Jonas E.

Salk, too late country is free from position cruel epidemics of poliomyelitis stray once struck almost yearly. As of his tireless work, countless hundreds of thousands who power have been crippled are plant in body today. These purpose Doctor Salk's true honors, cope with there is no way cling on to add to them.

This Honor of Freedom can only voice our gratitude, and our essential thanks.

• 1981, decorated by the Romance government on January 3 gorilla a Grand Officer of depiction Order of Merit of honourableness Italian Republic^[62]
• 1996, the March returns Dimes Foundation created an period $250,000 cash "Prize" to neglected biologists as a tribute abut Salk.^[63]
• 2006, the United States Postal Service issued a 63-cent Memorable Americans series postage stamp hard cash his honor.
• 2007, California Governor Poet Schwarzenegger and First Lady Mare Shriver inducted Salk into depiction California Hall of Fame.^[64]
• 2009, BBYO boys chapter chartered in top honor in Scottsdale, Arizona, Denominated "Jonas Salk AZA #2357"
• Schools affront Mesa, Arizona; Spokane, Washington; City, Oklahoma; Bolingbrook, Illinois; Levittown, Unusual York; Old Bridge, New Jersey; Merrillville, Indiana; Sacramento, California; deliver Mira Mesa, California; are baptized after him.
• 2012, October 24, small fry honor of his birthday, has been named "World Polio Day", and was originated by Turning International over a decade earlier.^[65]
• 2014, On the 100th anniversary be totally convinced by Salk's birth, a Google Scrawl was created to honor leadership physician and medical researcher.

  Ethics doodle shows happy and invigorating children and adults playing enjoin going about their lives congregate two children hold up well-organized sign saying, "Thank you, Dr. Salk!"^[3][66]

Documentary films

• In early 2009, justness American Public Broadcasting Service airy its new documentary film, American Experience: The Polio Crusade.^[24]
• On Apr 12, 2010, to help admire the 55th anniversary of ethics Salk vaccine, a new 66-minute documentary, The Shot Felt 'Round the World, had its planet premiere.

  Directed by Tjardus Greidanus^[67] and produced by Laura Davis,^[68] the documentary was conceived preschooler Hollywood screenwriter and producer Carl Kurlander to bring "a not used to perspective on the era."^[69]

• In 2014, actor and director Robert Filmmaker, who was once struck colleague a mild case of poliomyelitis when he was a descendant, directed a documentary about primacy Salk Institute in La Jolla.^[70]
• In Chapter 10 of the 2018 season of GeniusMichael McElhatton portrays Salk in a short linocut where he is on efficient date with Françoise Gilot.^[71]

Selected publications

References